第4章 英语语言结构（Ⅰ）
4.1 复习笔记
【本章要点】
1 Grammatical knowledge 语法知识
2 Sentence patterns in English 英语句子形式
3 The hierarchical structuring of English sentences 英语句子的分层结构
4 Surface and deep structures 表层结构和深层结构
【本章考点】
语法分类；英语句子形式；直接成分分析法。
【本章内容索引】
Ⅰ. Grammatical knowledge
1 Classification of grammar
2 Abilities by knowing the grammar
Ⅱ. Sentence patterns in English
1 Basic components of English sentences
2 Sentence patterns of different languages
Ⅲ. The hierarchical structuring of English sentences
Ⅳ. Surface and deep structures
1 Transformational Generative Grammar
2 Deep structure
3 Surface structure
Ⅰ. Grammatical knowledge（语法知识）
1 Classification of grammar（语法的分类）
(1) mental grammar（内在语法）
The linguistic information that saved in thoughts of people but may be visible to perform withinside the manufacturing of grammatical sentences and making grammatical judgments.
储存在人脑中但在人们使用合法句子和做出理性判断时起作用的语言知识叫做内在语法。
(2) prescriptive grammar（规定性语法）
It means “linguistic etiquette”, that is, the identity of the “proper” or “best” systems for use in a language.
规定性语法也叫“语言礼仪”，指语言应用中最恰当得体的结构识别。
(3) descriptive grammar（描述性语法）
Descriptive grammar is the study and examination of a language’s structures, generally with the goal of producing a description of English grammar.
描述性语法涉及语言使用结构的学习和分析，它的目的是建立对英语语法的完整描述。
2 Abilities by knowing the grammar（掌握语法获得的能力）
a. distinguish between reasonable and unreasonable phrases or sentences.
b. detect structural ambiguities.
c. determine whether two sentences are phrases obtained by conversion and are able to construct and understand sentences that have never been heard or written before.
a.区别合法与不合法短语或句子；
b.发现结构歧义；
c.判断两个句子是否是通过转换获得的短语，而且能构建和明白从未听过或写过的句子。
Ⅱ. Sentence patterns in English（英语句子形式）
1 Basic components of English sentences（英语句子的五个组成部分）
Subject (S), predicate verb (V), object (O), complement (C) and adverbial (A).
主语，谓语动词，宾语，补语和状语。
2 Sentence patterns of different languages（不同语言的句子形式）
SVO: English, French, Swahili, Hausa, Thai
主谓宾：英语，法语，斯瓦希里语，豪萨语
VSO: Tagalog, Irish, (Classical) Arabic, (Biblical) Hebrew
谓主宾：塔加拉族语，爱尔兰语，古阿拉伯语，（圣经中）希伯来语
SOV: Turkish, Japanese, Persian, Georgian
主宾谓：土耳其语，日语，波斯语，格鲁吉亚语
OVS: Apalai (Brazil), Barasano (Colombia), Panare (Venezuela)
宾谓主：巴西语，哥伦比亚语，委内瑞拉语
OSV: Apurina and Xavante (Brazil)
宾主谓：阿普日纳语，巴西语
VOS: Cakchiquel (Guatemala), Huave (Mexico)
谓宾主：危地马拉语，墨西哥语
Ⅲ. The hierarchical structuring of English sentences（英语句子的分层结构）
Immediate constituent analysis (IC Analysis)（直接成分分析法）
The immediate constituent analysis first analyses the sentence into immediate constituents—phrases (or phrases)—and then cuts these immediate constituents in turn to obtain their respective immediate constituents, layer by layer, until the final component is reached. In practice, it is common to slice and dice up to the word for convenience. The immediate constituents analysis can be represented by brackets or a tree diagram.
直接成分分析法先把句子分析为直接成分——词组（或短语），再把这些直接成分依次切分，得到各自的直接成分，层层切分，直到最终成分为止。实际操作中，为了方便，通常切分到词为止。直接成分分析法可以用括弧或树形图表示。
Ⅳ. Surface and deep structures（表层结构和深层结构）
1 Transformational Generative Grammar（转换生成语法）
The primary components of Transformational Generative Grammar are a collection of phrase structure rules and transformation rules.
转换生成语法主要包括两部分：短语结构原则和转换原则。
The structure of a sentence is as follows: a noun phrase is followed by a verb phrase.
短语结构原则：英语句子应该包含一个名词短语和一个动词短语。
The following are the transformation rules: In English, common transformation rules include deletion, copying, adding, and reordering.
一般而言，英语中转换原则包括删除、复制、添加和重新排序。
The syntactic ambiguity that IC analysis misses can be found using TG grammar.
转换生成语法能够揭示直接成分分析法所不能揭示的句法歧义。
2 Deep structure（深层结构）
Deep structure is an abstract description of a construction’s syntactic characteristics, or the underlying level of structural relationships between its constituents.
深层结构是对一个结构体的句法属性的抽象描述，即不同成分之间的结构关系的潜在层面。
3 Surface structure（表层结构）
The ultimate level in the syntactic derivation of a construction is surface structure, which closely resembles the structural organization of a construction that people actually make and receive.
表层结构是结构体句法派生过程的最后阶段，与人们实际发送、接受的结构组织相符合。
4 TG theory（TG理论）
TG theory ties all of a sentence’s meaning to its deep structure in its early stages.
TG理论在其发展初期，它把一个句子的所有意义都归结于它的深层结构。
The meaning of a statement is defined by the logical form of a phrase derived from its surface structure in the latter version (specifically Government and Binding Theory).
在后来的版本(即政府与约束理论)中，句子的意义是由句子的逻辑形式所决定的，句子的逻辑形式来源于句子的表层结构。
Another significant development in the late phases of TG Grammar is the reduction of all prior transformational rules into a single rule called “move α.” Some criteria, referred to as “principles,” must be met for an element to shift from one position to another.
TG的后期阶段语法中的一个重要的变化是,所有之前的转换规则减少到一个单一的规则称为“α”。一个元素从一个位置移动到另一个位置，必须满足一些条件，技术上称为“原则”。
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